Strength And Weakness Of Drug Facts Economics Essay

Strength And Weakness Of Drug Facts Economics Essay In OTC drugs, there is variation in labeling OTC drugs. Those OTC drugs which are exported to foreign countries are labeled in perfect manner, but that is in revise in Indian market. In India, OTC drugs are distributed in pitiable manner and it exhibits the lack of regulations in labeling. It is required to improve the labeling of OTC drugs. For achieving high-quality labeling, the following information should be included in the labeling requirements of OTC drugs. 1. The purpose of the drug 2. Detailed warning messages 3. Inactive ingredients 4. Dosage instructions 5. Users Contact data, equipped to get information for their queries The Drug and Cosmetic Act was executed in 1945. At that time, the literacy rate, which depicts the literacy (who can be read and write) percentage of a population over the age 15, was very low. The prerequisites of labeling were depended on general public education and circumstances. After that, there was a great improvement in both literary rate and the usage of OTC drugs. Stated by the surveys, India is currently in 11th position in the global OTC market, and it is believed to be in the 9th position in following five years. All these represents the need of modification which is required in the Drug and Cosmetic Act established in 1945, in order to improve the level of OTC drug labeling. History of OTC labels The manufacture, distribution, sale and import of drugs and cosmetics in India are regulated by the following legislations: The Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 (DCA) and its subordinate legislation Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945 (DCR) Drug (Prices Control) Order, 1995 Drugs (Magic Remedies) Objectionable Advertisement Act, 1954 Pharmacy Act, 1948 The above-mentioned legislations are regulated by the Central Government (Ministry of Health Family Welfare) and are enforced through Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the State Government. Even though, OTC drugs do not have separate labeling requirements in India, all drug products should have a minimal information present on the label of the innermost container of any drug and on every other layer in which the container is packed , as per rule 96 of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945 (DCR), except homeopathic medicines. The following are the minimum labeling requirements: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Name of the drug: Proper (generic) name, immediately followed by Trade (brand) name à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Net content of drug in the container à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Content of active ingredients/single dose or dosage unit à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Name, address and license number of the manufacturer à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Distinctive Batch number or Lot number for the product à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Manufacturing and Expiry date à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Maximum Retail Price (inclusive of all taxes) In India, Peoples habit of taking drugs differs from place to place. Around30%-45% of people prefer pharmacist and self treatment for their illness like cough, cold, pain, fever, injuries and digestive disorders. India is famous for Ayurveda and some other long-established systems of medicine. The aim of the evaluation conducted by Rama Krishna Chaitanya Aluri from Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, based on nearly 200 OTC drug labels, is to check the suitability of information on the labels for successful self-treatment by consumers. Recent changes in drug facts Recently, the FDA conducted extensive research on how consumers use OTC drug product labels, while comparing to the drug facts labels on advanced countries. The clarity of the labels was one major problem, especially for older Americans, who purchase almost 30% of the OTC drugs, sold in The United States. To determine the best way to order this information on OTC drug labels, a recent research has been conducted. Vigilante and Wogalter (1997) pragmatically decided an ordering of OTC label components based on users beliefs about what was (?) Strength and weakness of Drug Facts Having over-the-counter medication will save you time from visiting the doctor every time you have a little sniffle or an ache or pain. There are many safe drugs which can take care of most of your everyday illnesses like the following: colds coughs aches and pains upset stomach diarrhea allergies   These types of drugs are not the drugs themselves its the people! A lot of horribly unobservant people do not take the time to read directions in order to know how to take the medicine properly. There are many cases where people use over- the-counter medicines erroneously and poison themselves. Review in India History of drug regulations Drug regulation organizations in existence today, like Drug Laws, Drug Regulatory Agencies, Drug Evaluation Boards, QC Laboratories, Drug Information Centers, etc., have developed over time. Such developments began centuries ago in some countries, and in others, they are comparatively recent, some of them having started only in the 1990s. The restrictions under the Drugs (Price Control) Order, 1995 are not directly related to the question of categorization of the drugs as OTC drugs or otherwise. But still, they are required to be considered, as restriction on pricing may influence the decision to launch a drug as OTC drug. It is mandatory to obtain price approval from the Central Government, if the drug is classified as scheduled formulation under the Drug (Prices Control) Order, 1995. Also, Central Government can fix a maximum price at which every manufacturer is required to sell his product. For Example, Aspirin and vitamin preparations are deliberated as OTC products for the purpose of marketing. However, under Drugs (Prices Control) Order, 1995, they are considered as scheduled formulations and are subject to price restrictions, unless these formulations are manufactured at SSI units. Difference between pharmacy in India and US OTC in pharmaceutical industry dialect stands for over-the-counter (mainly with reference to drugs). The purchase/sale of drugs across the counter without prescriptions is denoted by this. In fact, in India, every pharmaceutical product market is OTC. People can orally ask for any product and buy it across the counter. In US, there are prescription drugs and over-the-counter drugs. The prescription drugs are strictly sold only on showing the prescription (Rx). Once the products are dispensed as per Rx, a seal is administered, to indicate that the Rx has been filled. If the patient goes in for refill of the Rx, the pharmacist does it only if it is legally permissible. In such cases, a seal or stamp is put on the Rx again, to indicate that the Rx has been filled once again. But in India, such procedures are not strictly followed. Hence, in a way, the Indian retail pharmaceutical market is OTC or rather it is better to be called  OTX  (combination of  OTC and Rx). Strength and weakness of OTC drugs in Indian and US In India, with the counter medication, there is no need to visit doctor every time for a little sniffle or pain or an ache, so drug facts are good. Several safe drugs are available which cures normal illnesses such as aches, colds, pains and coughs, allergies, and diarrhea and stomach upset. These types of drugs are the people but not the drugs themselves. People are terribly unperceptive and dont even care to read the directions mentioned on the drugs before consuming. Several cases happened when people took the counter medicines improperly and resulted in poisoning. Methodology Following methods are considered To know in depth of a particular aspect case study method helps the researchers; in many cases it selects specific location with very small portion as subject. Real time example is considered with limited number of conditions and events for case study investigation. According to Yin 1984, 23 case study definition a formula based calculations comparing with real world using many sources of evidence, relationships in between them are not accurately explained. Investigation of some case study is done by using longitudinal structures of single event which helps to observe sequence of data, events, reports and results from a long time, for example child language development investigation. According to Zaidah, 2003 Firstly useful data is deeply investigated according to situation based upon particular activity. Case study is very effective example knowing the interesting subject for authentic use. Students an opinion has to be focused during leisure hours the average number of particular subject is taken into the count. This kind of example values slightly deviates when n number of variable are consider. The examination of data is conducted within its context and also within its situation wherein the activity takes place. A case study would always be interested when subject makes it as an authentic text. In order to investigate, the researcher must be able in observing subject environment such as reading in class room or else reading in leisure time. According to zaidah 2003 it mostly focuses on limited number of variables. Results and Discussion The research literature consists of few studies in relations concerning medications that can be bought without any kind of medical prescription also named or over the counter as cold/flu medications etc. in spite of the fact that they are widely used and also represents if it is been misused. As proposed by Ferguson, Dodds, and Flannigan, 1994 one such area in which they are been misused that which involves not only overdosing but also interaction with any other substance. For instance: some case studies have documented individuals who seek to relieve depression symptoms by inducing a state of euphoria with multi-symptom cold syrup which contains chlorphenhydramine, dextromethorphan, and phenylpropanolamine. These substances may induce behavioral and emotional reactions, especially in prone individuals, leading to potentially serious health risks and consequences (Mendez, 1992). The Dangerous substance interactions have received some attention in the psychiatric disorders area. A questionnaire administered to 139 patients diagnosed with either depression or social phobia revealed that 40% of them used OTC cold/flu remedies which had negative interactions with their prescribed medications (Sweet et al., 1995). Another study examined the rate of consumption of TV advertised OTC medications by 471 college students. The results showed that, in addition to frequently using one or more such medications they did so without talking to their physicians about it or specifically determining the conditions under which they were taking such medications. These findings led the authors to emphasize the need to further study the effects of the media on the use of potentially risky OTC medications (Burak and Damico, 2000) The Indian OTC pharmaceuticals market generated total revenues of $2.5 billion in 2006,this representing a compound annual growth rate of 8.3%for the five year period spanning 2002- 2006. In comparison ,the US and Chinese OTC pharmaceuticals markets grew with CAGRs of 4.3% and 7% over the same period ,to reach respective values of $21.2billion and $11.9billion in 2006. Traditional medicines proved the most lucrative for the Indian OTC pharmaceuticals market in 2006, generating total revenues of $679.3 million. In comparison, sales of cough and cold preparations generated revenues of $492.6 million in 2006. Category %Share Traditional Medicine 27 Cough and cold preparations 19.80 Vitamins and Minerals 11.60 Medicinal skin plants 2.60 Others 26.03 Indian OTC pharmaceuticals market Share: % share, by value, 2004** Company %share Pfizer Inc 5.10 Sanofi Aventis 5.10 Johnson Johnson 2.0 Other 85.10 Inorder to obtain a better way of getting work done and make companies focus on packaging a better pharmacist approach through a better training sessions. By having, better access through labellng and packaging of OTC drugs through government and other pharma companies ensuring a better management of ailments through OTC medication. By developing a better approach of companies launching a better way of public education campaign fulfilling needs of OTC drugs and educating them to empower better way of medication. With all leading pharma companies launching their public education campaigns to fill the knowledge gap in proper selection and use of OTC drugs, it can be a classic case of PPP where the ultimate winner will be the consumer Suggestions and improvements in OTC labeling in US Based on Institute of Medicine IOM, 2008 medication label standardization U.S pharmacopeia health literacy launched container label prescription for consumers advice. Gerald McEvoy and Schwartzberg were the chairmans of American Society of Health System Pharmacists. According to them labels should contain the following principle: 1. Easy, understandable prescription and directions for consumers use. 2. Worldwide medicines should contain prescription label based upon exported countrys standards and basic exporters are clinicians, health literacy experts, academic researchers, government health agency representatives and pharmists. According to IOM, 2008 every year millions of drugs are misused, even after mentioning source of information and safety precautions clearly on the label. Sometimes written and oral consultations information may or may not present on the panel, in case of Rx container label should strictly contain doctors prescription for consumers safety. As per U.S. Pharmacopeia Health Literacy Instruction Container Labeling Advisory Panel recommend the following: Recommendations Arrange the label prescription in such a way that it always stays as a centre in comforting the users. The direction of a drug is given neatly and orderly in making the customer easily understand the prescription and to make use of them in a safe and also effective use. usefull information is given on the label of drug and they are as follows: Useful directions are present at the top of the panel. Medication details are present at bottom. Most important precautions like dosage. Administrative instructions are placed with specific style. The proposed labeling consists of various components and they study these components by making use of certain facts of drug. And labeling format is as follows: 1. Label to include: the Active ingredient all along with its strength: Results: All the 100 labels are examined and mentioned in the active ingredients along with their potency/strength. 2. Label to include: Therapeutic category/purpose: Its 55% of labels are disclosed in therapeutic category. 3. Label to include: Uses /indications for which medicine can be utilized: Even though a significant percentage (75%) mentioned the indications intended for the medicine, 25% of the labels failed to do so. 4. Label to include: Warnings related to common unpleasant effects, drug interactions, contraindications, precautions, over dosage, when it is appropriate to seek medical advice and also in special conditions like pregnancy breast-feeding. This also includes cautions in keeping them away from children. Results: 90% of the labels failed to enumerate the adverse effects of the medicine. 86% did not state what is to be done in case of overdose 92% gave no Information regarding usage in pregnancy and Breastfeeding 87% of the labels did not mention of the possible drug interactions, contraindications and precautions. 73% labels did not even advise to seek medical guidance. Only 36% labels mentioned that the medicine is required to be kept out of the reach of children. 5. Label to include: Directions including how much to be take n, dosage interval, and maximum dose allowed per day and the dose for children: Almost half of the medicines (46%) did not mention the amount to be used, while 34% did not mention the dosing interval. 85% of the medicines did not state the maximum dose allowed. Out of the 15% which did state the maximum dose, 20% were ambiguous with the details. It was also observed that 70% of the medicines failed to specify the dose for children. Only 1 label included Instructions for use in Devanagiri script. 6. Label to include: The products inactive ingredients help the consumers in avoiding ingredients that may cause an allergic reaction. None of the labels included the inactive ingredients. 7. Label to include: Storage conditions. Even though a large percentage (88%) of the labels provided the storage conditions, 64% of them were imprecise and difficult to understand. Nearly 85% of the labels were found without a specific temperature. Furthermore, storage conditions were often mentioned using terms which the common man are not familiar with. The exact temperature was rarely mentioned. Besides, we also assessed the label for 2 more criteria : 1. Label to include: Legibility to find out whether the label is easily readable, read with difficulty or with the aid of a magnifying glass. 40% of the medicine labels were clearly read only with the aid of a magnifying glass as the font size was too small. 22% of drug labels were read with difficulty leaving just around 38% which could be read easily. This suggests that 62% of the labels are read with much effort. 1. Label to include: Additional information through patient package inserts, information on secondary packages (wherever applicable): Patient package inserts are useful for providing additional information to the patient. Out of the 100 medicines examined, only 3 included a patient package insert. Many a times, secondary packagings of medicines are also given to the patient as additional protection for their medicines or as attractive packs. These secondary packages can also be used to convey valuable information to the patient. In 56% of the cases, a secondary package was found to be available to the patient, yet only 36% of them gave more information on its label than the primary package. Conclusion The OTC drug offering is incomplete with out empowering public on its rational use through Well planed strategic marketing initiative revolving around the aliment, the knowledge to diagnose and manage the same. In this empowerment process which can be considered as CSR, the objective should be prevention and holistic awareness creation leading to health and wellbeing than just offering the minimum needed information to use ones products. Thus by educating public (consumer) on how to manage common ailments and finally how to prevent them, the pharma companies can achieve its real goal of health for all and improve the quality of peoples life In India, OTC products are marketed and advertised liberally, with a view of educating the maximum number of consumers, and promoting treatment of minor ailments at home using OTC products as first line of defense. It can be anticipated that, more Rx to OTC switch will increase number of drugs in OTC category in near future. Hence it may be valuable to conduct more research on group of Consumers, who consume OTC Products freely and either switch from the existing brand or continue to earlier brand. A study on marketing of OTC products, used by post office and postman, can also be a studied as a channel of marketing of OTC drugs at national area. Since, the Customer and Consumer are being the same in the OTC drug marketing, companies must instantly address the information needs more effectively and uninterruptedly. Once the awareness level is enhanced, the acceptability of OTC drugs will improve. The knowledge about allopathic OTC drugs has to be disseminated by manufacturing companies, in order to ensure drastic reduction in the high information asymmetry existing now-a-days, especially when the knowledge of the traditional medicine is rooted in the culture. Bibliography Ajith, P., (2007). OTC Drug Marketing -. Global Trends and Indian Experiences. etal, C.P.B.., 1998. Patients Attitude to over the counter drugs possible professional response to self Medications. Oxford University Press, volume- 15, pp.44-50. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 21 CFR Part 201, e.a., 1999. Over-the-Counter Human Drugs; Labeling Requirements. Federal Register. . Sleath B, R.R.C.W.G.L.C.T., 2001. Physician-patient communication about over-the-counter medications.. Social Sciences Medicine.. Tracy Portner, M.C.S., 1994. College students perceptions of OTC Information. characteristics Journal, 8, p.142 to 161. Wilcox CM, C.B.T.G., 2005. Patterns of use and public perception of over-the-counter pain relievers. Focus on nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs..

How much did Hitler’s foreign policy owe to his predecessors? Essay

Hitler claimed that his foreign policy was original; most of it having been written down in the also ‘original’ Mein Kampf, which included a huge mix of ideological hatred, that had mainly been written before in some kind during the previous 50 years. So it was with foreign policy. Although some elements were new, they were mostly because Hitler’s predecessors had not had a chance to deal with them; they were results of the outcome of the First World War. These included lebensraum and pan Germanism, along with the desire to smash Communism and the idea of a racial war, including the destruction of the Jewish race worldwide. However, the most important idea was to crush the treaty of Versailles, something which Bismarck could not have envisaged, as he was dead before the war even started. However, Stresemann was interested in totally revising Versailles, although not going so far as ripping it up. There are also several ambiguous points, which featured before in German policy, but to which Hitler added a little of his own personal flavour. For example, the desire to expand into Russia was clear before even the war, and shown with the humiliating treaty of Brest-Litovsk, but no-one envisaged that Hitler would then try to use the Russians after annexing them as a slave labour force. Hitler perhaps owes a debt to the Kaiser, for they shared many of the same qualities. It has been mused that Hitler was the natural successor to the Kaiser, and this is certainly true when it comes to the area of Foreign policy. The Kaiser and Bismarck operated a right wing government from the creation of a united Germany in 1871, and in the 1870 Franco-Prussian war. Bismarck, however, was more cautious than the war-mongering Kaiser, and his personal ideas are perhaps more similar to Hitler before 1938, whilst the Kaiser’s mirror the second period, from 1938 to 1941 and the invasion of the Soviet Union. This was because Bismarck was always worried about Germany’s dangerous geopolitical position sandwiched between several other great powers of the continent. He also had to be wary of the results of 1870, because French hostility to the Germans from then onwards became a constant element of European foreign policy and diplomacy. Thus, to offset this disadvantage, he concluded the Dual alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, which Italy joined in 1882. He also signed a defensive treaty with Russia and Austria. This policy was pursued by Hitler with similar effect, as he pushed for several alliances that did not necessarily mean anything. These included the Rome-Berlin Axis, the Anti-Comintern Pact, and non-aggression pacts with Russia and Poland. However, although Germany wanted ‘a place in the sun,’ Bismarck was happy to stay on the sidelines when it came to Africa and Asia, as colonies not only led to tensions among the nations, but most of the nations with any economic appeal had already been grabbed by the other imperialist powers. Hitler, however, subscribed to Weber, who in 1895 stated that the foundation of thee German empire was not a terminal achievement, but that it was a step towards more glory and success. The Kaiser also shared this feeling, initiating Weltpolitik, and Admiral Tirpitz decided to build a fleet to support this, similar to Hitler, who built up a huge army after the introduction of conscription in 1935. Under the Kaiser, politics were perceived by foreigners as inflammatory, swaggering, insensitive and overly aggressive. Like Hitler, the Kaiser believed preserving the status quo would lead to decline, and thus Germany had to expand, preferably eastwards, the policy of Mittleuropa. Possibly Hitler implemented a kind of Weltpolitik for the same reasons that the Kaiser did, which were actually domestic. After the failure of the anti-socialist laws, the ruling elite wanted to reconcile the working class with the state, through integrative nationalism, passion for overseas expansion and concern for national prestige. Finally, the personality of the Kaiser was such that it can be compared to Hitler, for they both were nationalists, racists, obsessed with expansion, industrialisation and creating a Germany super-state with a huge army at its head. On the other hand, one might at first state that Stresemann, a servant of Weimar, would present a total discontinuation of foreign policy, but his right wing roots means that he actually presented Hitler with some ideas, despite the fact Hitler portrayed himself as totally anti-Weimer, and indeed was in so many ways. However, although Stresemann had some different policies, this was due to pressure, for he was a right wing fish in a socialist sea. Despite his leanings, though, he was never concerned with racial ideology which so motivated Hitler’s conduct. The only man around in the Weimar Republic who had the same leanings as Hitler, was Ludendorff, (who later joined the Nazis) who believed that establishing a large German area in the east at the expense of Russia would give Germany a large hegemonial position in Europe and beyond, from which position Germany would be able to fight a war self-sufficiently, called autarky. However, Stresemann believed Germany had to remain a trading nation and part of the international economic system. After the defeat of 1918, he became more of a realist, with a sharp sense of what could be done within the realm of practical politics. Although hating Versailles, he came to realise Germany could not destroy it by force, (Hitler’s aim) but only by collaborating with the Western powers in gradually modifying it. He decided to play Germany’s strongest card, her economic importance, should be played in cooperation with the international community, rather than in defiance of it, as some nationalists argued. After his period as chancellor, he remained as foreign minister until his death, deciding to advance by finesse rather than by force. He did this through several deals and treaties, which reduced the damage Versailles did to Germany rather than removing it completely. This included Locarno, the Dawes Plan, and the admission of Germany into the League of Nat ions in 1926. Shortly before his death, he claimed that the three great tasks of his foreign policy of finesse were as follows: a solution of the reparations question, protection for the 10 or so million Germans living outside the new German border, and a revision of the German border with Poland. He did not believe Anschluss would be beneficial, as it would raise religious questions. Also, what was more important, and a greater parallel with Hitler than with most of his other policies, was to ensure that Germany advanced through any means, namely through deals, including with the Russians. The treaty of Berlin greatly helped both outcasts, and was a prelude to some of Hitler’s policies, for it enabled secret training of troops and testing of weapons etc. As Stresemann had dismantled much of the system, this gave Hitler the chance to claim that originally his foreign policy would merely be the continuation of previous German governments. So, were Hitler’s policies a continuation of others, or were they radically different? Although this subject has been crossed, the best way of seeing whether this is true is to look at individual pieces of policy implemented by Hitler during the period 1933 to 1941. However, there are, as previously explained, two distinct periods, one of which Hitler appeared to be on a sort of metaphorical leash. Hitler proposed a very radical plan, more than anything that the majority of the German people, even the conservative elite would have proposed. He hoped tom win Britain as an ally, due to their concern over the growing power of the Japanese empire and the United States. He projected his crude Darwinism, but the British were never going to give Hitler a blank cheque for Eastern expansion. However, he implemented it with caution, like his predecessors, until 1938. This could be shown with the peaceable non-aggression pact with Poland, the return of the Saar, the Anglo-German naval agreement, the remilitarisation of the Rhineland (he was ready to retreat at any time), and cautiously involved himself in Abyssinia, and the Spanish civil war. He did this to help get Mussolini on side, without totally alienating France or Germany. Involvement in Spain also helped show his anti-communist policy, without seeming overly aggressive. This helped Hitler greatly, as these events led to the signing of the Rome-Berlin axis and the anti-Comintern pact. He also introduced the four-year plan, which was actually about re-armament, but Hitler portrayed the plan as mainly economic to the outside world. Hitler was also helped by the fact that the British government then decided to adopt the controversial policy of appeasement, which meant that for two years, Hitler could effectively gather territory peaceable, without fear of foreign intervention. However, after Anschluss, Hitler then sacked Neurath and promoted Ribbentrop, which resulted in the turn in policy, which became more aggressive, in the style of the Kaiser. This aroused concern with many of the generals, who tried to warn the British government, but they would not listen. This new aggression was shown by the fact that Hitler was in fact very angry after the Munich conference, for he would have to control himself somewhat until he had chance to strike. He also felt things were rising to a head where a large war would start, and in reality, he would have preferred a ‘little war.’ The fact that he was willing to make deals with anyone also helped his cause, for the signing of the Nazi-soviet pact was of vital importance. Hitler had been helped by the fact that Chamberlain had done everything possible to keep Stalin away from the negotiating table, for he wanted Britain to be the major mediator in European affairs. Therefore, although none of his predecessors’ aims were criminal, Hitler did indeed borrow a great deal from them, even Stresemann to an extent. He was helped by the fact that hardly anyone knew that Hitler was indeed serious about his racial policies or the extent he would go to carry them out. In fact, it has been said, that once Hitler was fairly sure that he had lost the military war, he put all his efforts into winning the racial war. Despite the fact that some policies were new, these were mainly because of events that were recent, and so, Hitler, in terms of foreign policy, could definitely be described as a plagiarist.

Future of Food Essay

In the passed couple of decades, the foods we deem to be natural or of the Earth are instead Genetically Engineered. The term Genetically Engineered does not mean that the entire vegetable or food is fake but rather means that there is at least one genetically modified ingredient in the food that is sold all over stores, which raises a great health concern for many people. In the feature production of the documentary known as The Future of Food looks at how modern day technology has changed the food we consume and the effects it can have on our health. In watching this film about all the advancements that science has come to in the world with the food being eaten everyday, both the positive and negative effects of all those technological changes, its only right to think of the countries that barely have enough food in general or the people who are losing their livelihoods because of the advancements created by science in first world countries. A first world country like the United States has not only a great amount but also lots of variety of nutrition; however, even this is still not enough to â€Å"satisfy† such a wealthy nation because steps are still being taken to continue to â€Å"improve† nature. Projects were done that helped produce corn in all kinds of different colors and creating bigger than normal sized strawberries. A question seems to arise, is all this technological advancement necessary? Are we as a society taking unnecessary measures to â€Å"fix† something that is natural and worked since the beginning of time? In the medical world, many health problems have been examined where food and nutrition were identified as partial contributors to the problem. This film helped in explaining how enzymes are used to knick corn DNA and how foreign DNA was then presented into the corn cell walls. Consuming the genetically modified corn caused allergic reactions and stirred a health concern about labeling genetically modified foods. In my particular opinion it should be the people’s right to know whether the food they’re ingesting has been altered genetically or tempered with from its natural state. Nevertheless, this does not belittle the question as to why it is necessity to alter the food in the first place. In order to formulate a ground based opinion I need to weigh the positives and negatives. Natural food always has the benefit of being â€Å"natural,† however, genetically engineered foods sometimes has the advantages of looking more appealing, tasting better and/or having a longer lasting flavor. I have experienced this first hand I have grown a distaste to certain organic foods simply because they just didn’t taste nearly as good as those that are genetically engineered even though the organic foods were supposed to be fresher and of course natural. This certain taste for food could just be that I got too used to the taste of all the preservatives that go into foods. It’s interesting how I got used to chemically preserved foods and genetically engineered tastes that overtime became the good tasting ones while the healthier ones were rejected by my taste buds. Another benefit is that genetically engineered foods end up being cheaper because they have a greater resistance to environmental conditions that would normally spoil the unaltered form and are also made in quantities not given the same attention organic foods are given to be fresh and ripe. Being that they are made in greater quantity, they are available for more people for cheaper prices, becoming the food of choice. The question would be, are the quantities made and the decrease in prices good enough to outweigh the negative effects of genetically engineered food? Another point and question would be why do many countries still remain unfed and continue searching for methods to feed their fast growing populations if these genetically engineered foods are produced in such a surplus manner? Keeping the advantages of genetically engineered foods in mind, there are definitely several noteworthy disadvantages too. An advantage was the surplus of food, however, how is it a benefit if such foods are harming the body? Some would agree that it is better to feed and raise a healthy smaller sized population with natural, unaltered forms of food than to infect a large population and have them suffer from the repercussion caused by the food they had consumed. Also, most people that are not keeping up with this field of work do not know that there are these bodies that have consumed the modified foods for such prolonged time periods and have overtime probably developed immunity to the side effects the modifications can have. In these genetically engineered foods the DNA is altered, and just as changes in human DNA lead to disorders, consumption of foods with altered DNA may have the same fatal effects. Certain genetic modifications can even go as far as cause cancers and brain and organ damage. A huge disadvantage that most people do not notice, especially those who live in urban areas, is that due to the production of the genetically altered foods a lot of farmers have been put out of jobs. These farmers are not needed as much anymore because more crops can be made for cheaper and therefore they no longer make as much money on each crop they plant and sow as they once did, as was shown in Central American countries. Now days, while technology could be helping the economy by decreasing the price of foods for people, it is also harming people who depended on the unaltered food to bring them income. The U. S. economy and industry is choosing quantity over quality, which is not beneficial to our health but instead just our wallets. I believe that its not fair for people not to know what is in their foods and usually people don’t seek food that can hurt them, therefore, it was crucial that the â€Å"Genetically Engineered Right to Know† act get passed. It would allow people to know what they are consuming from the labels on the foods and therefore prevented conditions that could’ve risen from individuals allergic to a modified substance. The Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration is supposed to be on top of the foods produced and their effects. Nevertheless, it seems that genetically modified foods don’t cause enough of a significant threat in order for them to take action and stop the advancement, rather than promote it and seek ways to improve it. What would bring this matter to a flashing red alert? Though I admitted that genetically altered food does taste better, I still do not agree with the fact that I am consuming and enjoying the taste of unhealthy food. People often look for the most ripe fruits and healthy looking vegetables when they go shopping, but for a lot of produce these bigger fruits and vegetables end up being the modified ones. Though I personally have only been able to see the advantages of these foods, I realize that the disadvantages outweigh the benefits of having genetically modified foods. From a realistic point of view, being a student on a low budget it would be unpractical for me to purchase anything but the cheap genetically altered food. Looking even at the bigger picture, many individuals and families have the same outlook I do. Therefore, many people may be against the genetic modification of food, yet not much course of action will be taken. People are comfortable with their life styles, making the cases and effects of modified foods not seem like such a big deal. This shows that the wrong approach is probably being taken to bring this to significant awareness. To promote foods that are not going to be altered, there needs to be ways to produce the same great quantities and keep prices affordable under the economic conditions of the country and the budget of the average American Family. It was crucial to pass an act that will help identify the genetically engineered goods but still it is not sufficient enough to solve the issue at hand. This matter is truly a very controversial issue, containing both pros and cons; therefore, we as a government and a knowledgeable society we need to take a stand and incorporate more ideas in to solving this domestic problem.

Mercosur Nafta And The Eu Three Agendas Business Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 13 Words: 3861 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Compare and contrast essay Did you like this example? ABSTRACT Three major international trade groups are characterized in terms of their overall strategic objectives using the categories developed by Raymond Miles and Charles Snow. It is hypothesized that the strategic orientation of MERCOSUR is primarily that of analyzer, that the strategic orientation of NAFTA is primarily that of defender and that the strategic orientation of the European Union is primarily that of prospector. The reactor category is seen as a secondary or back-up orientation for all of the groups. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Mercosur Nafta And The Eu Three Agendas Business Essay" essay for you Create order Implications of these categories for business management practices are discussed within the context of intergroup business transactions. INTRODUCTION The purposes of this paper are to present a comparative overview of three trading groups in terms of (1) their histories, structures and, especially, their strategic objectives (agendas), (2) their overall strategic orientations and (3) the implications of this material for business management practices. The three trading groups are MERCOSUR, NAFTA and the European Union (EU). Theoretical material concerning strategic orientation is drawn from the work of Miles and Snow (1994) in which they identify prospector, defender, analyzer and reactor categories. Based upon an assessment of their histories, structures and objectives the trading groups are classified as MERCOSUR-Analyzer, NAFTA-Defender and EU-Prospector. And, based upon these conclusions, management practices in each of the groups are differentiated both descriptively and prescriptively. Implications of these conclusions are drawn in terms of recommendations for intergroup trade at the level of the business firm. One of t he most enduring conceptual frameworks for the classification of the competitive strategy of a business is that developed by Miles and Snow (1994:12-15). The classification system includes three viable categories, which are the defender, the prospector and the analyzer, and a fourth dysfunctional form, the reactor, which is essentially a try anything regardless of consequences approach used when the firm is facing severe challenges to survival. The defender firms move slowly, tend to dominate their markets and work hard to improve quality and efficiency; they strive for economies of scale in areas that are healthy, stable and predictable. Prospecting firms try to achieve success by being first, by anticipating where the market is headed through their own research efforts; they continually search for new products, services and technologies. Analyst firms are a partial combination of the defender and prospector. They succeed by being careful followers of other firms, learning by other s trials and identifying a niche in an already existing market which can be exploited. Defenders typically use a functional and centralized organizational structure and their planning process takes the sequential order of planactevaluate. Prospectors usually have a divisional and decentralized organizational structure and their planning process takes the sequential order of actevaluateplan. Analyzers are structured as a mixed functional-divisional matrix with some decentralization to operating units and their planning process takes the sequential order of evaluateactplan. Innovation for the prospector focuses on new products, services and technology; for the defender, innovation involves developing new ways to produce and deliver existing products and services; the analyst is innovative by adapting to new trends either in their existing business lines or those developed by prospectors. The application of these frameworks in this paper is to entire groups of nations which have special trade agreements such that there are mutual benefits to trading within the groups. Three trading groups are discussed in this paper (MERCOSUR, NAFTA, The European Union) and the classification of these blocks by Miles and Snows (1994) scheme is proposed to be as follows: MERCOSUR-Analyzer, NAFTA-Defender and EU-Prospector. These classifications are the subject of the remainder of the paper. OVERVIEW OF THREE TRADE GROUPS The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA implemented in 1994) is an example of a free trade area in which barriers to trade among member countries are eliminated, but allows each country to establish its own external trade barriers. The current members of NAFTA are Canada, the United States of America and Mexico. A problem with free trade areas such as NAFTA is the potential for trade deflection whereby non-member countries try to avoid trade barriers by initially exporting their products to a member country with low trade barriers, then re-exporting the products to a member country with high trade barriers. NAFTA specifies rules of origin, which detail the conditions under which a good is classified as a member or non-member good to try to prevent trade deflection (Griffin and Pustay, 2002). Details from the Agreement itself are provided below. The Parties to this Agreement, consistent with Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, hereby establish a fr ee trade area. The objectives of this Agreement, as elaborated more specifically through its principles and rules, including national treatment, most-favored-nation treatment and transparency, are to: a) eliminate barriers to trade in, and facilitate the cross-border movement of, goods and services between the territories of the Parties; b) promote conditions of fair competition in the free trade area; c) increase substantially investment opportunities in the territories of the Parties; d) provide adequate and effective protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights in each Partys territory; e) create effective procedures for the implementation and application of this Agreement, for its joint administration and for the resolution of disputes; and f) establish a framework for further trilateral, regional and multilateral cooperation to expand and enhance the benefits of this Agreement. (The North American Free Trade Agreement, Part 1, Chapter 1, Articles 101, 102; see als o www.nafta-sec-alena.org/english/index.htm). The MERCOSUR Accord, formalized in the Treaty of Asuncion in 1991, is an agreement among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, to form a customs union which combines the elimination of barriers to internal trade among member countries with the adoption of common external trade policies toward non-members. Trade deflection is not an issue in a customs union since member countries treat non-members in a uniform manner (Griffin and Pustay, 2002). Details from the Treaty itself are provided below. The Party States hereby decide to establish a common market, which shall be called the common market of the southern cone (MERCOSUR). This common market shall involve: (a) the free movement of goods, services and factors of production between countries through, inter alia, the elimination of customs duties and non-tariff restrictions on the movement of goods, and any other equivalent measures; (b) the establishment of a common external ta riff and the adoption of a common trade policy in relation to third States or groups of States, and the co-ordination of positions in regional and international economic and commercial forums; (c) the co-ordination of macroeconomic and sectoral policies between the Party States in the areas of foreign trade, agriculture, industry, fiscal and monetary matters, foreign exchange and capital, services, customs, transport and communications and any other areas that may be agreed upon, in order to ensure proper competition between the Party States; (d) the commitment by Party States to harmonize their legislation in the relevant areas in order to strengthen the integration process. (Treaty of Asuncion, Chapter 1, Article 1; see also www.mercosur.com/in/info/tratadosde_asuncion.jsp -and- www.sice.oas.org/trade/mrcsr/mrcsr1.asp). The European Union (EU) was created by the Treaty of Maastrich in 1992 and is an example of a common market. Twelve of its members (EURO-12) also present an exa mple of an economic union. The EU combines the elements of a customs union with a policy that allows for the mobility of factors of production. Productivity is expected to rise in a common market because factors of production are free to locate where the returns to them are highest. The EURO currency has been adopted by all but Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom, thus forming an economic union which eliminates trade barriers between member countries, establishes a common external trade policy, follows a policy of factor mobility, and coordinates economic policies of member countries (Griffin and Pustay, 2002). The fifteen EU member nations, in order of entry, are Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland and Sweden. Details from the Treaty itself are provided below. By this Treaty, the High Contracting Parties establish among themselves a European Union. This Treaty marks a new stage i n the process of creating an ever-closer union among the peoples of Europe, in which decisions are taken as openly as possible and as closely as possible to the citizen. The Union shall be founded on the European Communities, supplemented by the policies and forms of cooperation established by this Treaty. Its task shall be to organize, in a manner demonstrating consistency and solidarity, relations between the Member States and between their peoples. The Union shall set itself the following objectives: (a) to promote economic and social progress and a high level of employment and to achieve balanced and sustainable development, in particular through the creation of an area without internal frontiers, through the strengthening of economic and social cohesion and through the establishment of economic and monetary union, ultimately including a single currency in accordance with the provisions of this Treaty; (b) to assert its identity on the international scene, in particular through the implementation of a common foreign and security policy including the progressive framing of a common defense policy; (c) to strengthen the protection of the rights and interests of the nationals of its Member States through the introduction of a citizenship of the Union; (d) to maintain and develop the Union as an area of freedom, security and justice, in which the free movement of persons is assured in conjunction with appropriate measures with respect to external border controls, asylum, immigration and the prevention and combating of crime; (e) to maintain in full the acquis communautaire and build on it with a view to considering to what extent the policies and forms of cooperation introduced by this Treaty may need to be revised with the aim of ensuring the effectiveness of the mechanisms and the institutions of the Community (Treaty of Maastrich, Title I, Articles 1, 2; see also europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/treaties/livre102.html). CHARACTERISTICS OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT IN THE THREE TRADE GROUPS The European Union (Prospecting) Business Management Model. The following five characteristics represent a summary of the views of directors of major European firms, all members of the European Round Table of Industrialists (ERT), who were asked to describe the ideal profile of the European manager (Calori and DeWoot 1994:237): (1) ability to involve people including communication and psychology skills and the capacity to work in teams, to coordinate and to motivate; (2) international skills including international experience, competence in at least three languages, geographical mobility and global thinking; (3) flexibility with aptitudes to manage change and diversity, tolerance to ambiguity and uncertainty and the capacity to learn (selfà ¢ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¬evaluation, openness); (4) intuition including creativity and the ability to innovate; (5) broad vision with an aptitude for interdisciplinary views and deep social, philosophical and ethical understanding. A similar set of characteristics was given by the European Round Table of Industrialists concerning common characteristics of European management (Calori and DeWoot, 1994). These are seen as inclusive of the ideas presented above and are as follows: (1) orientation towards people (ability to involve people); (2) internal negotiation (broad vision, intuition); (3) managing international diversity (international skills); (4) managing between extremes (flexibility). This set of categories is the basis for the EU common management model. The case study research of Paulson, et al. (2002) and Kramer (1996) provide evidence that these elements are, indeed, being practiced. The firms they described are engaged in high-risk entrepreneurial activities which present much ambiguity and uncertainty, requiring tolerance and a reliance on intuition. These firm-level elements are, thus, consistent with the prospecting model which, in turn, is consistent with the general classification of the EU. The NAFTA (Defending) Business Management Model. Essentially, the elements of a firm level management model for NAFTA firms are those which are prominent among existing U.S. businesses. The general rationale for this perspective is described by Herman Konrad (1995: 15-35) as a continentalization process with antecedents in the late nineteenth century. The process has been one of much variety through time but as Herman Konrad (1995: 15) indicates, one element has not varied and that is the asymmetrical nature of the relationships between Canada and the United States, and between Mexico and the United States as he says: Fears of dominance and dependence, on the part of Canadians and Mexicans, were and are important issues in the face of disproportionate economic and political influence of a seemingly all-powerful neighbor. Yet as with the Cold War military threat of the past, and Asian and European economic threats of the present, Herman Konrad (1995) concludes that inward-directed nationalist strategies will not be pursued. That i s, continentalism will continue to grow and that the United States, at least in the short run, will remain the primary influence. Belous and Lemco (1995), similarly, characterize the United States, and to a lesser extent Canada, as behemoths. But, of late, these behemoths are opening their doors to Mexico which represents a major shift in continental policy. Policy, that is, which is more consistent with accelerated continentalization. As Blank and Haar (1998: 83) indicate: There may be a tendency in the United States to take North America for granted . . . Many firms no longer view Canada as a foreign country [and] . . . Mexico is not very foreign either. . . We came to Canada says the CEO of one of Americas largest retail-securities brokerages, because we believed the services we offer are universal. Theyre not American; theyre not Canadian. The notion of North America may have become so commonplace that companies are less conscious of specific arrangements in the region. The s pecific rationale for adopting the U.S. business, firm level, management model as the model for NAFTA is in two parts, Canadian and Mexican. In terms of Canada, the U.S. model has been the Canadian model since the 1950s when Peter Drucker, Douglas McGregor and others began to shape management prescriptions for the U.S. and became the basis for ideas taught in business school of the U.S. and Canada. Regional differences within the U.S. and within Canada are greater, for example, than overall differences between the U.S. and Canada. And the expectation is that this will become more the case as NAFTA facilitates international business transactions (cf. Safarian, 1996). In terms of Mexico, conversely, there are substantial differences in business management yet the trend in the last ten years has been toward emulation of the U.S. approach even in the face of some very rough spots (Baer, 1996). As described by Castillo Vera, 1995:119) Toward the end of the [1980s] the private sector c ame to the conclusion that exporting to the United States was the means to survive and . . . that a stronger union with the United States was a wise, if not the only, policy alternative. Also, as with the Canadian case, the dramatically increased, and very influential, presence of U.S. higher educational systems has had a reorienting effect (Victor Konrad, 1995: 353-362). This reorientation has been toward adoption of a U.S. business management perspective with the expectation that with NAFTA-facilitated business transactions it will become even more pronounced. The expectation is that this orientation to the U.S. model by Canada and Mexico will deepen considerably (Doran, 1996) and that the international mergers and acquisitions, as well as privatization efforts, of the last fifteen years have fostered and will continue to foster this development (Gianaris, 1998: 61-86, 189-206). The result of this trend by the United States, Canada and Mexico has been described by the Conferenc e Board (Taylor, 1991) as a North American Competitive Space toward which all three nations are evolving. As evidence for this conclusion, the Conference Board notes the development of bi-national regions which include the single markets of Ontario-Michigan and Southern California-Northwestern Mexico. The development of the maquiladora industry, likewise, is an example of such bi-national regionalization (Ganster, 1995). Thus the specific elements of NAFTA are those associated with U.S. firms and they are delineated in Calori and DeWoot (1994:11-15) as follows: (1) profit orientation which emphasizes shareholders wealth, stock value growth and price levels; (2) competition which focuses on customer satisfaction; (3) individualism, suggesting a strong orientation to self-achievement and mobility with a high turnover of managers; (4) professionalism of managers who learn detailed techniques and apply them through formalized systems. These firm-level elements are evidence of the def ending model which is consistent with the general classification of NAFTA. The MERCOSUR (Analyzing) Business Management Model. In a report issued in 1998 by Simonsen Associates, a major business consulting firm located in Sao Paulo, Brazil, the critical success factors for the businesses of MERCOSUR are as follows (Simonsen Associados, 1998: 84-89): (1) perseverance in pursuit of a clearly defined goal; (2) formal and well-substantiated knowledge about the market; (3) creativity in utilizing knowledge about the market and adding it to objective knowledge about the company; (4) resources which are available not only at home but also in the other countries; (5) courage; (6) rapid and early decisions. These points, in turn, reflect a set of MERCOSUR market conditions which firms will be facing and they are recommended by Simonsen to be part of a firms Program of Integration Marketing (PIM) which is an elaboration of a diagnosis of the company, conducted in accordance with time and resources available and aimed at a systematic approach. This program has the function of providing executives and shareholders wit h the necessary elements to be able to define better the positioning and strategic actions of the company in new market realities. The PIM model, and the six success factors listed above, are based upon accumulated experiences with client firms in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, market surveys conducted by Simonsen and six case studies which are described in detail as illustrations of these points (Simonsen Associados, 1998: 93-123). The six cases are Groupo Brasil, Arisco, Banco Itau, Brahma, Cotia Trading and LUPATECH S.A. These elements are reflected in the work of others. Peter Coffey (1998:7-8) indicates that the two major factors which were indispensable to the creation and subsequent success of MERCOSUR were the return to democracy and accompanying implementation of sober economic and monetary policies by the countries involved, especially Brazil and Argentina. In their review of hemispheric regionalism, Mace and Belanger (1999:2-7) indicate that beginning in the late 1980s, Latin America observed the development of trading groups in North America, Western Europe, Asia and, especially, regional developments in an opened Central and Eastern Europe, and concluded that they must follow suit. And Fischer (1999) describes the integrationist-competitive model as the currently dominant model which has the main purposes of fostering competition within the region and exploiting regional comparative advantages in international markets. This, in turn, requires a careful analysis of other regions and the costs/benefits of developing a market where there is an apparent advantage vis-a-vis other regions. Clearly these firm-level elements are evidence of the analyzing model which is consistent with the general classification of MERCOSUR both defending and prospecting elements are found in combination. CONCLUSION The general conclusion of these assessments is that a structural effect is operating such that the stage of development of the trade group (free trade zone, customs union, common market/economic union) influences the broad strategic orientation of the group which in turn influences the specific orientation of the firm. In the case of NAFTA, as a free trade zone, the trading group is at a very elementary level which encourages a cautious adherence to processes/products/services already mastered and clearly understood the effort remains one of looking for ways to fine tune operations for greater efficiency. This is, then, the basis for the defending approach of the trading group and individual firms within member nations. This has been verified, in this paper, by examining independent assessments of management practices at the level of the firm. In the case of the European Union, the most sophisticated and advanced forms of trading bloc development are found and those are the com mon market and economic union. At this level it is expected that the most aggressive and proactive strategic orientation would be pursued and this is exactly what has occurred in the form of the prospector orientation. Likewise, this orientation is expected at the level of the individual firm in the form of management practices and this has also been verified, in this paper, by examining independent assessments of management practices at the level of the firm. Finally, MERCOSUR is in the complicated middle stage of trading bloc development, the customs union, in which there is a combined prospecting and defending orientation. This orientation manifests itself in the common attempt to emulate the success of the EU while recognizing the strength and dominance of NAFTA classic characteristics of the analyzing strategic orientation. The manifestation of the analyzing orientation is seen in the practices of managers at the level of the operating business firm which has been documente d, in this paper, through examining independent assessments. The most useful implications of these conclusions are at the level of the individual firm and its managers which desire to establish relationships with firms across trading bloc boundaries. A fictional scenario which applies to these conclusions is as follows. Imagine that a South American pasta maker, with home offices in Montevideo, would like to expand beyond the MERCOSUR market. At the same time, imagine that there is a network of European retail grocery stores with headquarters in Bologna that is interested in supplementing the domestic supply of pasta against possible shortages owing to several years of severe draught in the central regions of Italy the source of 80% of the firms pasta. Both firms independently contact the worlds largest volume supplier of pasta which is located in the NAFTA region with centralized management staffs in Minneapolis. The Minneapolis firm studies its long range plan and discovers th at there is no provision to become a third party mediator and thus decides to not attempt to buy from Montevideo and resell to Bologna this would represent too great a departure from routine company activities and too great a risk for the defender strategy. But, upon hearing that there is a potential supplier in Uruguay, AND realizing the defending tendencies of the U.S., along with the Uruguayan tendency to be cautiously analytical, the Bologna business staff offers to pay a high price for Uruguayan pasta. At the same time, the Italian firm provides consultant expertise which convinces the U.S. firm that third party relationships are an American Tradition. At that point the Italian firm will have provided key inputs at the very time when the U.S. and Uruguay are on the verge of entering the act stage in their respective planning processes (see above discussion concerning the relationships among planning, evaluating and acting). If so, then the MERCOSUR firm can rely on the U.S. fi rm to buy their product because they have an eager customer in the EU all of which was initiated by the Italian firm in true prospecting fashion! This scenario focuses exclusively on strategic activities and, of course, there would be other factors which could play a part in the decision-making of the Italian firm and its desire to secure an additional, very independent supplier, through the risk-taking of the U.S. and Italian firms.